DISKRIMINASI PASAR TENAGA KERJA

Transkripsi

1 DISKRIINASI PASAR TENAGA KERJA! Perbedaan upah (earning) dan kesempatan kerja (employment opportunities) untuk pekerjaan yang sama,! Disebabkan : ras, gender, suku bangsa, dll. TABEL 1 KONDISI PASAR TENAGA KERJA AERIKA (1997) WHITE BLACK HISPANIC Pria Wanita Pria Wanita Pria Wanita Lulusan SU (%) 82,9 83,2 73,5 76,0 54,9 54,6 Lulus S1 (%) 27,0 22,3 12,5 13,9 10,6 10,1 TPAK (%) 77,5 59,9 72,2 64,0 84,1 57,0 Pengangguran (%) 3,6 3,7 8,5 8,8 6,1 7,9 Upah Tahunan $ $ $ $ $ $ (Part Time) Upah Tahunan $ $ $ $ $ $ (Full Time) andri_wijanarko@yahoo.com Labor arket Discrimination - 1

2 Kondisi pasar tenaga kerja :! Terjadi perbedaan upah antara pekerja pria dan wanita " Gender! Terjadi perbedaan upah antara pekerja kulit putih, hitam dan hispanic " Ras! Perbedaan juga ditimbulkan karena tingkat pendidikan Negara lain :! CANADA " Upah pria kulit hitam lebih rendah 18 % daripada pria kulit putih.! INGGRIS " Imigran non kulit putih menerima % lebih rendah dari imigran kulit putih dengan skill yang sama.! HUNGARY " ratio upah wanita-pria 0,65! SWEDIA " ratio upah wanita-pria 0,77! AUSTRALIA " ratio upah wanita-pria 0,73 andri_wijanarko@yahoo.com Labor arket Discrimination - 2

3 THE DISCRIINATION COEFFICIENT # Dikemukakan Gary Becker dalam The Economics of Discrimination (1957) # Konsep dasar : perbedaan selera # Type TK : White Workers dengan upah w W dan Black Workers dengan upah w B # Apabila tidak suka Black Workers maka upah yang sebenarnya w B untuk 1 jam, seolah-olah menjadi w B (1 + d) # Nilai d positif, disebut Discrimination Coefficient # Contoh : upah Black Workers per jam w B = $10 dengan d=0,5 ; menyebabkan seolah-olah employer membayar $15 per jam. # Nepotism Coefficient " w B (1 n ) andri_wijanarko@yahoo.com Labor arket Discrimination - 3

4 A. EPLOYER DISCRIINATION # Asumsi :White Workers dan Black Workers, keduanya Perfect Subtitutes in Production. # Fungsi produksi : q = f ( E W + E B ) q E W E B " output firm " jumlah white workers " jumlah black workers Analisis Firm Non Diskriminasi # White Workers dan Black Workers memiliki Value of arginal Product (VP E ) sama. # Employer akan merekrut yang lebih murah # Employer akan merekrut sampai upah TK sama dengan Value of arginal Product. # isal : w W > w B andri_wijanarko@yahoo.com Labor arket Discrimination - 4

5 Gambar 1 Keputusan Rekrutmen Black Workers pada Firm Non Diskriminasi Dollars w B VP E E B * Employment Analisis Firm Diskriminasi # isal : Employer tidak suka black worker, maka upah " w B (1 + d) # Keputusan rekrutmen : perbandingan antara w W dengan w B (1 + d) $ Rekrut hanya BW " w B (1 + d) < w W Rekrut hanya WW " w B (1 + d) > w W andri_wijanarko@yahoo.com Labor arket Discrimination - 5

6 # All-white workforce " White Firms # All-black workforce " Black Firms # isal : w W < w B Gambar 2 Keputusan Rekrutmen White Workers pada White Firm (Diskriminasi) Dollars w w VP E E W * Employment # Pada kondisi w W < w B ; semakin besar d maka semakin banyak merekrut white workers, dan sebaliknya. andri_wijanarko@yahoo.com Labor arket Discrimination - 6

7 Gambar 3 Keputusan Rekrutmen Black Workers pada Black Firm (Diskriminasi) w (1 + d ) B 1 Dollars w (1 + d ) B 0 w B VP E E B 1 E B 0 E B * Employment DISCRIINATION and PROFITS Kerugian white firm (Gb. 2) : Employer seharusnya dapat merekrut black worker dalam jumlah yang sama dengan upah lebih rendah " Kesalahan Jumlah Profit seharusnya dapat meningkat bila non diskriminasi andri_wijanarko@yahoo.com Labor arket Discrimination - 7

8 Kerugian Diskriminasi :! erekrut pekerja Wrong Color! erekrut Wrong Number $ enyebabkan tidak tercapainya Profit- aximizing Level of Employment ( E * B ) Gambar 4 Profit dan Discrimination Coefficient Dollars π max π w Black Firm White Firm 0 d W Discrimination Coefficient The ost Profitable Firm " Zero Discrimination andri_wijanarko@yahoo.com Labor arket Discrimination - 8

9 LABOR ARKET EQUILIBRIU Firm dengan Discrimination Coefficient :! Rendah " cenderung Black Firm! Tinggi " cenderung White Firm Gambar 5 Ratio Upah Black/White dalam Pasar Tenaga Kerja Black-White Wage Ratio S (w / w ) B W 1 R D' (w B / w W )* D 0 N Black Employmoent andri_wijanarko@yahoo.com Labor arket Discrimination - 9

10 Kondisi :! (w B / w W ) > 1 " Tidak ada employer merekrut black workers.! Asumsi : Supply Black Worker Perfectly Inelastic " sejumlah N Black person tidak terpengaruh tingkat upah. B. EPLOYEE DISCRIINATION! Diskriminasi dilakukan oleh Fellow Worker! isal : White worker yang bekerja pada Black Firm dengan upah w W akan merasa mendapat upah w W (1- d).! Tidak berpengaruh terhadap Profitability of Firms karena white worker dan black worker adalah perfect subtitutes sehingga firm membayar jumlah upah yang sama. andri_wijanarko@yahoo.com Labor arket Discrimination - 10

11 C. CUSTOER DISCRIINATION! Keputusan membeli tidak ditentukan oleh Actual Price ( p ) tapi oleh The Utility-Adjusted Price " p (1 + d).! Employer dapat mengatur tenaga penjualan sesuai kondisi.! Survey yang dilakukan di Atlanta, Boston, Detroit dan Los Angeles : HUBUNGAN ANTARA CUTOER DISCRIATION DENGAN PERSENTASE BLACK WORKER BARU TYPE FIR Customer & worker bertemu Customer & worker tidak bertemu > 50 % BLACK CUSTOER > 75 % WHITE CUSTOER PERBEDAAN 58,0 % 9,0 % 49,0 % 46,6 % 12,2 % 34,4 % Perbedaan ,6 % andri_wijanarko@yahoo.com Labor arket Discrimination - 11

12 CUSTOER DISCRIINATION and the NBA Nearly three-quarters of the players in the National Basketball Asociation (NBA) are black, and many of the highest-paid players are also black. In the last few years, a number of black rookies have signed eye-popping multiyear contract, such as Shaquille O Neal s $40 million deal with the Orlando agic, Chris Webber s $74 million deal with the Golden State Wariors, and Larry Johnson s $84 million deal with the Charlotte Hornets. There ara also more black coaches in the NBA than any other sport. ost fans of the NBA, however, are white. Because baskerball players are very visible to the fans who attend the games, the team owners cannot disguise the racial composition of the team by strategically placing players in far-off positions. oreover, there seems to be scarcity of talented white players who could notoceably change the racial composition of an NBA team. Customer discriminations by fans, therefor, will increase the relative salaries of white players because owners wishing to cater the the white fans will compete for the few white players available. It turns out that the racial composition of the basketball team has a strong impact on game attendance. A study of attenance records indicates that replacing a black player with an eqqually talented white player bring in about 9,000 additional fans per year. At $50 a head (a very conservative estimate of ticket prices and concession revenues), the racial switch would increase annual team revenues by roughly $450,000. It is also the case that black players earn less than white players in the NBA. The typical white player earns about 20 percent more than black who play in the same position and have equal ability (as measured by the ream statistics that sports fans are so fond of memorizing). The average annual salary in the NBA is now over $ 2 milion, so the impact of customer discrimination in the wages of basketball players may substantial. Sources : Lawrence Kahn and Peter Sherer, Racial Differences in Professional Basketball Players s Compensation, Journal of Labor Economics 6 (January 1998);40-61; Andrew E. Serwer, How High, Sport Illisutrated, November 8, 1993, pp andri_wijanarko@yahoo.com Labor arket Discrimination - 12

13 EASURING DISCRIINATION Asumsi : Tenaga kerja terdiri dari # ale, dengan average wage W # Female, dengan average wage Diskriminasi : selisih average wage, yaitu : W F W = W W F Pengembangan model : Schooling mempengaruhi pendapatan Earning function : # ale : w = α + β S # Female : wf = α F + β F SF β menyatakan pendapatan pria meningkat bila mendapatkan tambahan 1 tahun pendidikan. odel Regresi : W = W W F = α + β s α F β F s F andri_wijanarko@yahoo.com Labor arket Discrimination - 13

14 Gambar 6 easuring the Impact of Discrimination on the Wage Dollars - w en's Earnings Function Skill w* F Women's Earnings Function α - w F α F 0 - s F - s Schooling ale mendapat wage lebih tinggi meskipun samasama tidak bersekolah. ale bersekolah lebih lama sehingga perbedaan antara ale dan Female " w w F Diskriminasi akibat Skill " Diskriminasi akibat School " * w F * wf w F w andri_wijanarko@yahoo.com Labor arket Discrimination - 14

15 TREND IN FEALE-ALE WAGE RATIO ( ) Year WAGES AND EDUCATIONAL ATTAINENT OF HISPANIC WORKERS (1997) HOURLY WAGE ( $ ) EN YEAR OF SCHOOLING HOURLY WAGE ( $ ) WOEN YEAR OF SCHOOLING HISPANICS exicans Puerto Ricans Cubans Central or South American Origin Other Hispanics Non-Hispanics 12,78 12,20 14,11 14,58 13,00 15,31 19,44 12,8 10,1 12,2 13,1 11,2 12,8 13,7 11,53 9,90 12,67 14,21 10,67 12,01 13,63 11,5 10,9 12,8 13,2 11,8 12,9 13,7 andri_wijanarko@yahoo.com Labor arket Discrimination - 15