Korupsi dan Budaya: Mengapa sebagian orang korup dan sebagian lagi tidak?

Transkripsi

1 Korupsi dan Budaya: Mengapa sebagian orang korup dan sebagian lagi tidak? Nur Rachmat Yuliantoro Korupsi Politik sebagai Isu Global S-1 HI UGM, 13 Maret 2012

2 Pemahaman dasar Korupsi undermines the cultural system in which it occurs. Because cultures can operate in very different ways, very different kinds of behavior can corrupt. (J. Hooker Corruption from a cross-cultural perspective, Cross Cultural Management, Vol. 16 No. 3, 2009, p. 251). Di banyak masyarakat, memberikan perlakuan khusus kepada keluarga atau teman dekat adalah normal (perhatikan soal responsible cronyism ). Dalam masyarakat lainnya, hal yang sama bisa dianggap sebagai korupsi. Hipotesis: corruption can be seen as culturally endorsed.

3 Memahami masalah korupsi dan budaya Tiga penggunaan konsep culture: a process of intellectual spiritual and aesthetic development, related to the idea of civilization... particular ways of life... [and] artistic and intellectual endeavour: theatre, dance, music, and film. (R. Williams, Keywords, Oxford University Press, New York,1985 sebagaimana dikutip dalam Larmour, p. 227) Tiga kesalahan umum saat menggunakan konsep culture dalam menjelaskan korupsi: ia adalah sebuah uncaused cause, atau an explanation of the last resort, dan suatu veto on comparison. (M. Thompson, M.Verweij & R. Ellis, Why and how culture matters, 2006 sebagaimana dikutip dalam Larmour, p. 228) P. Larmour, Corruption and the concept of Culture : Evidence from the Pacific Islands, Crime, Law & Social Change, 49, 2008, pp

4 Masalah: Universalisme v. Partikularisme Kebudayaan Barat didasarkan pada aturan, sementara kebudayaan Timur biasanya dibentuk oleh pola hubungan antaranggota masyarakat. (Hooker, 252). Apa yang dianggap sebagai korupsi dalam kebudayaan Barat bisa diterima di kebudayaan Timur dan sebaliknya relativisme kultural. Secara umum, memberikan dan menerima suap adalah korupsi, baik di kebudayaan Barat maupun Timur. (Hooker, 254)

5 Isu 1: Power distance Power distance merujuk kepada the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organizations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally. paternalisme, nepotisme. Hipotesis: The higher the power distance in a country, the higher the level of corruption in that country. B. W. Husted, Wealth, Culture, and Corruption, Journal of International Business Studies, Vol. 30, No. 2, 1999, pp

6 Isu 2: Individualisme Dimensi individualisme-kolektivisme dapat didefinisikan sebagai the extent to which decisions about a person s life are determined by the individual or by the in-group a person s circle of family, friends, or peers. E. Banfield (The Moral Basis of a Backward Society, 1958): hubungan antara amoral familism dan korupsi. Hipotesis: The less individualistic (more collectivistic) a society, the higher the level of corruption in that country. Husted, p. 344

7 Isu 3: Masculinity Dalam konteks ini, masculinity dapat diartikan sebagai sebuah perspektif yang merujuk to a focus on material success as opposed to a concern with the quality of life. Hipotesis: The greater the masculinity of a culture, the higher the level of corruption in that country. Husted, pp

8 Isu 4: Uncertainty Avoidance Menurut G. Hofstede (Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind, 1997, p. 113), uncertainty avoidance didefinisikan sebagai the extent to which members of a culture feel threatened by uncertainty or unknown situations. Korupsi dapat dilihat sebagai cara/sarana yang tersedia untuk mengurangi ketidakpastian. Hipotesis: The greater the level of uncertainty avoidance in a nation, the higher the level of corruption in that country. Husted, p. 345

9 Isu 5: Jender dan korupsi Di Mexico City and Lima, perempuan menggantikan lelaki sebagai polisi lalu intas karena women are less likely to be corrupt. Riset oleh A. Swamy, S. Knack, Y. Lee & O. Azfar (Gender and Corruption, 1999) menemukan bahwa negara-negara yang memiliki persentase perempuan anggota parlemen yang tinggi cenderung mengalami kasus korupsi yang lebih sedikit. Untuk didiskusikan: a greater presence of women in public life will reduce corruption. O. Azfar, Y. Lee & A. Swamy, The Causes and Consequences of Corruption, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 573, January 2001, pp

10 Beberapa bacaan terekomendasi N. Khatri, E. Tsang & T.M. Begley, Cronyism: A Cross-Cultural Analysis, Journal of International Business Studies, Vol. 37, No. 1, January 2006, pp J.R. Heilbrunn, Oil and Water? Elite Politicians and Corruption in France, Comparative Politics, Vol. 37, No. 3, April 2005, pp S.D. Morris, Corruption and Mexican Political Culture, Journal of the Southwest, Vol. 45, No. 4, Winter 2003, pp M. Stuart-Fox, The Political Culture of Corruption in the Lao PDR, Asian Studies Culture, Vol. 30, March 2006, pp R. Gandossy & J. Sonnenfeld, I see nothing, I hear nothing : Culture, corruption and apathy, International Journal of Disclosure and Governance, Vol. 2, No. 3, September 2005, pp B.M. Dalton, Corruption in cultural context: Contradictions with the Korean tradition, Crime, Law & Social Change, Vol. 43, 2005, pp K.A. Getz & R.J. Volkema, Culture, perceived corruption, and economics, Business and Society, Vol. 40, No. 1, March 2001, pp